Module 2 – GBV

Introduction
Gender-based violence (GBV) is a grave human rights violation that can cause long-term and life-threatening injury and trauma to victims/survivors. GBV interferes with the reproductive health and rights of victims and survivors. All the modules discussed in this course can be negatively affected by GBV including STIs, contraceptives, HIV and SRHR in general. It is critical for young people to be able to identify risks that increase their vulnerability to GBV, identify GBV when it occurs and mitigate and respond to GBV when it happens so they can become survivors and not repeat victims of this scourge.

Objectives of this topic

• Define Gender-Based Violence (GBV), sexual harassment and sexual exploitation.
• Identify risk factors that may predispose one to GBV, sexual harassment and sexual exploitation.
• Identify types of GBV and use case examples to analyze them.
• Distinguishing risk factors and triggers of GBV.
• Discuss the linkage between GBV and HIV.
• Describe the GBV policy and program context in Zimbabwe and identify GBV response mechanisms and referral pathways for survivors of GBV.

GENDER-BASED-VIOLENCE

Gender-Based Violence – is an act of physical, sexual, and psychological harm directed at an individual based on his or her biological sex, gender identity, or his or her perceived adherence to socially defined norms of masculinity, femininity and otherwise. It includes threats; coercion; arbitrary deprivation of liberty; emotional trauma and economic deprivation, whether occurring in public or private life. GBV takes on many forms and can occur throughout the lifecycle, from the prenatal phase through childhood and adolescence, the reproductive years, and old age. Women and girls are the most at risk and most affected by GBV. Consequently, the terms “Violence Against women and Girls (VAWG)” and “Gender-Based Violence” are used interchangeably by some sections.

However, boys and men can also experience GBV. GBV is rooted in structural inequalities between men and women and is characterized by the use and abuse of physical, emotional, or financial power and control. GBV often occurs when the abuser believes that abuse is an entitlement, acceptable, justified, or unlikely to be reported.

Domestic violence is violence or abuse in a domestic setting, such as in marriage or cohabitation.

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is abuse or aggression that occurs in a close relationship, perpetrated by a spouse or partner in an intimate relationship against the other spouse or partner, and can take place between former spouses or partners. It also involves violence against children, parents, or the elderly.

Non-Intimate Partner Violence is Gender-based violence perpetrated by a non-intimate partner i.e., perpetrator does not have a close relationship with the victim or survivor e.g., GBV perpetrated by the police, by kombi touts (striping of women wearing short dresses or shouting sexual obscenities to women and girls passing through the kombi ranks), or work colleagues (e.g., sexual harassment in the workplace)

SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Sexual harassment is unwanted conduct of a sexual nature. The unwanted nature of sexual harassment distinguishes it from behavior that is welcome and mutual. Sexual attention becomes sexual harassment if the behavior is persistent, although a single incident of harassment can constitute sexual harassment; and/or the recipient has made it clear that the behavior is considered offensive; and/or the perpetrator should have known that the behavior is regarded as unacceptable.

Sexual harassment may include the following:

Verbal:

• Referring to an adult as a girl, hunk, doll, babe, or honey.
• Whistling at someone, cat calls.
• Making sexual comments about a person’s body.
• Making sexual comments or innuendos.
• Turning work discussions to sexual topics.
• Telling sexual jokes or stories.
• Asking about sexual fantasies, preferences, or history.
• Asking personal questions about social or sexual life.
• Making kissing sounds, howling, and smacking lips.
• Making sexual comments about a person’s clothing, anatomy, or looks.
• Repeatedly asking out a person who is not interested; and
• Telling lies or spreading rumors about a person’s personal sex life.
• Sexually offensive phone calls

Non-Verbal:

• Looking a person up and down (elevator eyes).
• Staring at someone.
• Blocking a person’s path.
• Following the person.
• Giving personal gifts.
• Displaying sexually suggestive visuals.
• Making sexual gestures with hands or through body movements; and
• Making facial expressions such as winking, throwing kisses, or licking lips.

Physical:

• Giving a massage around the neck or shoulders.
• Touching the person’s clothing, hair, or body.
• Hugging, kissing, patting, or stroking.
• Touching or rubbing oneself sexually around another person; and
• Standing close or brushing up against another person.

SEXUAL EXPLOITATION

Sexual exploitation is actual or attempted abuse of a position of vulnerability, power, or trust, for sexual purposes, including, but not limited to, profiting monetarily, socially, or politically from the sexual exploitation of another.

Examples of sexual exploitation include:

• Observing another individual’s nudity or sexual activity or allowing another to observe consensual sexual activity without the knowledge and consent of all parties involved.
• Non-consensual streaming of images, photography, video, or audio recording of sexual activity or nudity, or distribution of such without the knowledge and consent of all parties involved.
• Prostituting another individual.
• Exposing another’s genitals in non-consensual circumstances.
• Knowingly exposing another individual to a sexually transmitted disease or virus without that individual’s knowledge.
• Inducing incapacitation for the purpose of making another person vulnerable to non-consensual sexual activity.

TYPES OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE

1. Physical violence

Any act which causes physical harm because of unlawful physical force. Physical violence can take the form of, among others, serious and minor assault (pushing, slapping, whipping), deprivation of liberty and manslaughter. Anyone can suffer physical violence, but women more often than men are victims of physical violence because of their feminine orientation.

1. Sexual Violence

Any sexual act performed on an individual without their consent. The key word is any this includes kissing, touching, and actual sexual intercourse which is rape or aggravated sexual assault. Both women and men can be sexually abused however more women report sexual abuse than men. Men can be sexually assaulted by either women or men however these incidences may go unreported because boys and men may react to sexual touch and get an erection and may also orgasm. Cultural norms about masculinity, may also be a barrier as men and boys feel that sharing a sexual abuse encounter is emasculating. Sexual violence includes sexual harassment and sexual exploitation.

1. Economic Violence

Any act or behavior which causes economic harm to an individual. Economic violence can take the form of, for example, property damage, restricting access to financial resources, education, or the labor market, or not complying with economic responsibilities, such as alimony on maintenance. Both men and women may suffer economic violence when a partner uses their financial position to violate the other.

1. Psychological violence

Any act which causes psychological harm to an individual. Psychological violence can take the form of, for example, coercion, defamation of character, verbal insult, or harassment.

RISK FACTORS AND TRIGGERS TO GBV

How systematic gender inequality drives violence against women?

Research shows us that the systematic gender inequality that exists in most societies across the world is violence against women hence you will find some programs discussing violence against women and girls (VAWG) rather than just GBV. In most societies, men have greater access to power and resources than women and these gender inequalities are created and reinforced through discriminatory social norms, practices and structures within families, communities, and institutions.

It is good to use a socio-ecological model to show how the imbalance of power between men and woman and gender inequalities permeate all levels of society.

1. At the level of society or the nation, laws and policies often legitimize or reinforce gender inequalities and female subordination e.g., laws on property ownership, inheritance, marriage, and divorce that favor men.
2. At the community level, predominant norms and practices may also reinforce and propagate gender inequality e.g., expectations about the jobs men and women should do, who can speak at community meetings etc.
3. At the interpersonal or relationship level, for example the institutions of marriage and the family, and ideas around privacy and honor will affect the way men and women are treated.
4. At the individual level, individual men and women may subscribe to beliefs about their expected roles and behaviors as men and women. In many parts of the world, men are expected to exercise authority over women and resources and women are expected to obey their husbands, fathers etc.

In this way, we can see how gender inequalities are embedded and reinforced through formal and informal institutions, structures, and norms at all levels of society. It is these facts that drive GBV. The risk factors of GBV are therefore multi layered and can occur at different levels.
Imagine one person having all the four levels of risk present in their lives. What are their chances of experiencing violence?

The graphs below show some risk factors to IPV and GBV as well situations that can trigger IPV.

 

To reduce the chances of IPV and GBV it is important that one identifies the risk factors and mitigate against them. It is important to look out for GBV and IPV risk factors from a layered perspective otherwise we may miss opportunities to help our peers who are at risk. Or we may even become victims of GBV ourselves without seeing it coming. For example, dating someone who abuses alcohol or drugs, who has a history of GBV themselves or who has very strong beliefs about how women and men should behave. Or staying in a community where GBV is very high, and people tend to sweep the issues under the carpet or just coming from a very poor household and you feel going back home is a last resort even when you partner is abusing you.

THE BIDIRECTIONAL NATURE OF GBV AND HIV

HIV and violence constitute twin and often interconnected epidemics. When violence against girls, women and other sexual minorities is normalized in society it is likely that these groups will be disproportionately affected by HIV and AIDS. The lack of control and power to protect themselves increases their vulnerability to HIV and AIDS and produces poor sexual health outcomes.

Describe below is how the various forms of GBV can increase the risk to HIV.

Sexual abuse

• Most AGYW (Adolescent Girls and Young Women) report that their first sexual encounter was forced. Forced or coerced sex increases vulnerability to HIV infection by severely limiting, if not destroying the victim’s ability to negotiate safe sexual behavior.
• Rape also increases the chance of tissue tearing and/or physical trauma to the body, this compounds the vulnerability of young women whose reproductive tracts are not yet mature if sex is forced with no or limited lubrication. Young women, who are victims of sexual violence may feel shame after an experience of rape and never seek medical services, including post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), even when these are available.
• Sexual violence and rape often go unreported because society often shames the victims and say, “they invited it”. Where communities are not supportive rape will go unreported and PEP is not administered, and victims of sexual violence are exposed to HIV.
• A history of sexual assault can affect a victim’s willingness or capacity to negotiate condom use and/or refuse sex altogether in later sexual activity. Women who experience forced sex by intimate partners are almost six times more likely to use condoms inconsistently than women who are not coerced. Violence and trauma can lead to lower CD4 counts, higher viral loads and lower adherence to HIV prevention and treatment drugs.

Economic abuse

Men have more rights, access, control, and decision making related to financial resources. Men therefore have more economic power compared to women. Women and girls are often economically dependent on men. This economic dependency may result in: –

• Women staying in risky relationships in which they lack control over their sexual activity and the ability to protect themselves from the transmission of HIV.
• Intergenerational sex between young women and older more financially stable men
• More women than men entering sex work.
• Survival sex work where one has no alternative but to exchange sex for money, goods and services may happen to young women.

Abuse of Political & Religious Rights

• Women are often unable to participate equally in the decision-making processes within their communities. In such circumstances, it is unlikely that policies will be implemented to protect women and girls against the spread of HIV and empower them to control their reproductive health, e.g., decisions around child marriage are not implemented because the perpetrators of child marriage (older men with power) are the rights holders. It is older women who marry away they’re under aged daughters and it is often older men who marry the young girls. Child marriages put AGYW at high risk of HIV because they do not have the power to demand an HIV test or use of condoms.
• Women’s underrepresentation in political processes translates into unequal access to education and health services because male policy makers often do not prioritize women’s needs.
• Young women may fail to access condoms, HIV testing or PMTCT (Prevention of Mother to Child Transmissions) when pregnant due to lack of knowledge predisposing them to HIV.

Harmful socio-cultural Beliefs

Socio-cultural beliefs shape behavior that contributes to the increase of HIV infection among young women and sexual minorities. Some of these beliefs are that: –

• “Good women” are sexually passive and ignorant about sex and the men should dominate sexual relationships and make reproductive decisions for both partners. This disempowers women from using protective devices like condoms or lube – lest the partner asks how and where they have learnt about these.
• Boys and men are encouraged to experiment with their sexuality with partners outside the confines of the relationship, women are expected to remain faithful to their partners.
• If a girl is known to be sexually active her father or her brothers can dictate that she be married immediately even when she is not yet ready.
• A man can have more than one partner, the practice of polygamy exposes men to a high risk of contracting HIV, which in turn increases the risk that their female partners will become infected.
• The value placed on virginity – in some cultures, people believe that if a man has sex with a virgin woman he will be cleansed of his infections/ bad omens/ bad luck. Young, virgin girls and women are at a higher risk of being raped by men influenced by this common misperception. Forced sexual activity is known to increase the chance of HIV infection. In Zimbabwe, about 1 in 3 women aged 15 to 49 have experienced physical violence and about 1 in 4 women have experienced sexual violence since the age of 15.
• A woman should have children – the value placed on fertility may lead to women sacrificing their own reproductive health to bear children for their men who they do not trust or have never tested for HIV with.

HIV CAN DRIVE GBV

i.  Disclosure of HIV Status

HIV-positive women or sexual minorities may suffer violence if they disclose their HIV status to intimate partners, friends, family, or communities. This leads to them not disclosing their status thereby putting their partners at risk of HIV and failing to get the needed psychosocial support for adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART).

ii.  Non-Adherence to ART

If one is hiding their HIV status, they are less likely to adhere to treatment. This results in high viral load or even move to second line or third line regiment.

iii.  Abuse of alcohol and substance abuse

People who are hiding their HIV status may turn to drugs to cope with the mental trauma. This exacerbates their risk to abuse and failure to adhere to treatment.

iv.  Abuse by family and partners

People who are HIV positive may be shunned, verbally, emotionally, and physically abused for “bringing” HIV to the union or family.

v.  Having a partner with a different HIV status

When a young person is in a relationship with partner whose HIV status is different from his or hers, they may suffer sexual abuse where a partner refuses to use a condom and forces themselves on them.

GBV IN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS

It is important for young people to understand that GBV can happen in their own spaces among themselves alone as young people can be perpetrated by an older person or person in authority or even by strangers.

GBV RESPONSE

When one has survived GBV they will need help. There are various ways that one may need help depending on the type and intensity of the GBV suffered. GBV can be cyclical and continue to occur to the same victim if it is not stopped as soon as it starts. It is important that victims/ survivors take back control of their bodies, sexuality, and lives. This is a difficult process therefore the victims will need consistent and long-term support to become survivors.

a. Psychosocial help

GBV causes psychological trauma. GBV often happens in closed settings, perpetrators are often close relations family or friends, and it can be very confusing for the survivors to take any action. The most important first step for any GBV survivors is speaking up about the abuse and seeking help. It is important that the very first time a survivor speaks about the violence and abuse that they feel comfortable and know that they will be believed and listened to, and that help will be offered. Psychosocial support involves providing emotional and psychological care to an individual who is a survivor/ victim of any form of GBV. It includes dealing with the psychological issues (thoughts, feelings, behaviors, perceptions, making sense of the world) and the social issues (family, friends, community, spirituality).

b. Legal support

GBV is human rights violation therefore it must be reported to the law enforcement agencies. It is critical that cases of GBV be reported as soon as they occur. You may even report a potential case before its occurrence as a mitigatory measure for example if you suspect that someone may be physically or sexually abusive you can report to them to the police and get a restraining order that keeps them at a safe distance from you.

It is important to know that each country has the responsibility to protect you from GBV. The State is required to,

1. Criminalize all acts of gender-based violence and ensure that national law, policies, and practices adequately respect and protect human rights without discrimination of any kind, including on grounds of gender.
2. Investigate allegations of GBV thoroughly and effectively.
3. Prosecute and punish those responsible.
4. Provide adequate protection, care, treatment, and support to victims/survivors, including access to legal counselling, health care, psycho-social support, rehabilitation, and compensation for the harm suffered.
5. Take measures to eliminate all beliefs and practices that discriminate against women or sanction violence and abuse, including any cultural, social, religious, economic, and legal practices.
6. Take action to empower women and strengthen their personal, legal, social, and economic independence.

c. Clinical help

In cases of sexual, physical, and psychological abuse the survivor will need to access clinical care. In sexual abuse cases one must report to a health facility immediately so that they can receive PEP to HIV, STI treatment and emergency oral contraceptives to prevent an unwanted pregnancy. The clinical staff may also then refer the survivor to the police to get a GBV case opened against the perpetrator and the police may ask for a medical report from the clinic as well. Again, it is important that in cases of sexual violence and physical violence one reports early, at least within 72 hours of the abuse so that all evidence can be collected that can be used to bring the perpetrator to book.

d. Socio-economic help

Sometimes the survivors need socio-economic support for a moment e.g., shelter if they cannot continue to stay at their current residence, school fees if they cannot longer access it because of the abuse. Various partners do support survivors in such situations. It is important to know the various NGOs and charitable organizations in your community or beyond who can help a survivor.

Take away messages!

• GBV is about power and one gender forcing their power over another and expecting subordination.
• GBV is driven by patriarchy and social constructs of masculinity and femininity. In some sections we refer to Violence against Women and Girls (VAWG) because these groups often suffer much higher levels of GBV compared to males, however some males are victims of GBV as well.
• The types of GBV are many and may occur together.
• There are some factors that increases one’s vulnerability to GBV these can be classified into personal, relationship, community, and social drivers.
• GBV and HIV are identified as twin epidemics because they can drive each other up. Women girls and sexual minorities often have increased vulnerability to both HIV and GBV.
• It is critical that when one is a victim to GBV they must seek help because GBV can be cyclical and is most likely going to happen again.